Safest Baby Foods Without Heavy Metals or Perchlorate--LAB RESULTS

September 29, 2021 // by Leah Segedie

In a new investigation released, close to 200 baby foods were tested across the United States and 95% of them contained one or more heavy metals like arsenic, lead, cadmium, or mercury. They also found perchlorate, a rocket fuel chemical, inside baby food & infant formula used as an “anti-static” agent. This is horrifying. We know. So what should you feed your baby? You’ve trusted Mamavation to bring you topics like best cookware without PFAs & nano-materials, safest “breathable” crib mattresses, & thousands of other product investigations, now join us as we take you through the latest study by Healthy Babies Bright Futures and spill the beans on the safest brands.

Disclosure: This post was updated on September 29th, 2021. It was medically reviewed by Sondra Strand, RN, BSN, PHN. This post also contains affiliate links.

Table of Contents

Heavy Metals Arsenic, Lead, Cadmium & Mercury Are Commonly Found in Baby Foods

When you go to the store to pick up baby food, you don’t expect to bring home a side of heavy metals, but that is exactly what is happening. In the latest baby food investigation by Healthy Babies Bright Futures & partners, 168 baby food products were tested, including 61 brands. The results were very concerning for parents because it means toxic metals are common in baby food.

95% of baby food tested were contaminated with one or more of four toxic heavy metals–arsenic, lead, cadmium or mercury.
Within a single container lots of contaminants could be inside:
- 4 metals were found inside 26% of baby foods tested,
- 3 metals were found inside 40% of baby foods tested,
- 2 metals were found inside 21% of baby foods tested,
- 1 metal was found inside 8% of baby foods tested &
- 0 metals were found inside of 5% of baby foods tested (9 foods)
Arsenic was found in 73% of baby foods
Lead was found in 94% of baby foods
Cadmium was found in 75% of baby foods
Mercury was found in 32% of baby foods

UPDATE: This investigation caused quite a stir and the U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Economic and Consumer Policy started to investigate. Two reports were made on February 4th, 2021, and September 29th, 2021 with more information about heavy metal contamination within baby food companies. They received internal documents & heavy metal testing from Happy Baby Organics, Beech-Nut, Gerber, Earth’s Best Organic, Plum Organics, Parent’s Choice (Walmart brand), & Sprout Organic Foods. (The latest labs are reflected in the investigation at the bottom.)

Pediatricians Are Talking About Heavy Metals & Baby Food and They Aren’t Happy

Pediatricians have already started warning parents about this danger. “Arsenic, lead, and other heavy metals are known causes of neurodevelopmental harm,” explains Dr. Phillip Landrigan, a pediatrician and Director of the Program in Global Public Health and the Common Good in the Schiller Institute for Integrated Science and Society at Boston College. “Low-level exposures add up, and exposures in early life are especially dangerous. The cumulative impact of exposures is what makes this a significant concern that demands action.”

87% of the foods tested contained more than one toxic heavy metal.
4 in 7 infant rice cereals tested contained inorganic arsenic (the toxic form of arsenic) in excess of FDA’s proposed action level of 100 ppb (parts per billion).
83% of baby foods tested had more lead than the 1ppb limit endorsed by public health advocates
1 out of every 5 foods tested had over 10 times the limit of 1ppb endorsed by public health advocates

What Can Heavy Metals Do To Developing Babies?

It’s been clear for hundreds of years that heavy metals like arsenic, lead, cadmium & mercury are very problematic to human health. But when it comes to children, it’s even more dangerous. They can harm a developing baby’s brain and nervous system both in utero and after birth. Arsenic, lead, cadmium & mercury can negatively impact the brain development of an otherwise healthy baby.

And to drive this home, in the past seven years, there have been 23 peer-reviewed studies underlining the dangers to children when it comes to these heavy metals. The lead level, arsenic level, cadmium level, & mercury level of a child’s food and supplements matter. The common symptoms of exposure to high levels of heavy metals are as follows:

lower IQ
behavior problems like attention deficit syndromes (ADD)
other learning and behavioral impacts
arsenic, lead & cadmium are also carcinogens

According to health advocates at Abt Associates who studied data of national surveys of food contamination and consumption of American children aged 0 to 24 months, American children lose 11 million IQ points from exposure to arsenic and lead in these foods. Rice-based foods also account for about one-fifth of this loss and fifteen foods account for over half of this loss of IQ points.

Rocket Fuel Chemical Perchlorate Found in Baby Food

Perchlorate, a chemical used in the creation of rockets, fireworks, and matches, has also been found in baby foods. In 2005, Perchlorate was approved by the FDA as an “indirect additive” in plastic packaging for foods and today is used as an anti-static agent in cereals, infant formula, and other baby foods. Grains become static-y when ground very small and packaged, so food companies started adding perchlorate to the inside of plastic packaging walls to solve that problem.

Perchlorate disrupts thyroid function and blocks the uptake of iodine to the thyroid. When this happens in utero or in early childhood, IQ loss and development issues become very possible. Last year, the American Academy of Pediatrics issued a statement that food additives like perchlorate were dangerous to children and should not be approved by the FDA. These results show a prevalence of perchlorate in baby food and underline the need for the FDA to ban all food uses of perchlorate in baby food. Babies are already getting heavy metals in their baby food, perchlorate isn’t a helpful chemical in terms of neurodevelopment for American children.

But at Mamavation, we’re not just reporting the news. We have become very active in changing policy behind the scenes for you. Mamavation was active in pressuring the California Water Board to lower the detection limit (DL) of perchlorate, which is the first step to limiting how much can legally come to your tap. Because perchlorate uptakes into green leafy vegetables and California is the salad bowl capital of the United States, the level of perchlorate California allows in water directly affects everyone who eats salad nationwide.

What Are The Safer Alternatives?

Safer alternatives exist here, so it’s important to just familiarize yourself with the options. In fact, you’ll save an average of 80% less toxic exposure if you follow the solutions we’ve pulled for you. Long story short, here they are.

Snacks Solutions: If you choose rice-free snacks over puff snacks made from rice you’ll get about 93% less toxic heavy metals
Teething Food Solutions: If you choose soothing foods for teething like a frozen banana or chilled cucumber instead of teething biscuits or rice rusks, you’ll get about 91% less toxic heavy metals
Cereal Solution: If you choose other infant cereals like multi-grain and oatmeal instead of infant rice cereal you’ll get about 84% less toxic heavy metals
Drink Solution: If you choose tap water instead of giving your child fruit juice, you’ll get about 68% less toxic heavy metals
Fruits & Veggies Solution: If you choose a variety of fruits & veggies instead of just carrots & sweet potatoes all the time, you’ll get about 73% less toxic heavy metals.

Unfortunately, organic standards do not tackle heavy metals in the standards. So some organic brands will have some surprising heavy metal content, but we’ve found some better organic brands in our investigation at the end of this investigation to help you out.

It’s also important to know that heavy metals are not typically added to baby food but come from the soil and uptake into plants. Levels of heavy metal contamination in soil vary, but it’s important to understand that organic doesn’t necessarily mean safer when it comes to heavy metal contamination in children. More on the best organic baby formulas here.

Baby Food Makers & Home Cooking: The Best Solution

The truth is this–the more something is processed through food manufacturing, the more likely it’s going to have contaminants inside ingredients. Baby food manufacturers are challenged with producing a non-toxic finished product. So making the baby food yourself is really the solution to your problem. But I get it, it’s not always convenient. But if you have the time avoiding high levels of toxic heavy metals is wise. That’s why we are bringing you both options, so you can choose daily.

But here’s more proof that softening your baby’s food isn’t the best plan in general. The latest research looking at evolutionary dentistry says that softening a baby’s food prevents them from fully developing their jaw, which can lead to a list of ailments in adulthood like sleep apnea.

Here are some of the baby food makers we would recommend:

Beaba Babycook Neo (glass/stainless steel)
Beaba Babycook 4-in-1 baby food maker (polypropylene)
Stainless Steel mortar & pestle (no plastic whatsoever)
Weston Stainless Steel Food Mill (no plastic whatsoever)
Norpro Stainless Steel Food Mill (no plastic whatsoever)
Cuisipro Stainless Steel Food Mill (no plastic whatsoever)
Baby Breeza glass baby food maker
Black & Decker Glass Food Processor

Other Investigations We Think You’ll Like On Mamavtion

Before we go over all the baby food brands, we would like to show you other baby-related investigations we’ve done that we believe we can be of service to you in recommending:

We also have additional investigations that will make your life easier in terms of product choices.

Supplements & Over-the-Counter

Safer Indoor Air

Cleaning Products

Kitchen

Personal Care for the Whole Family:

Beverages

Mamavation’s Investigation on Baby Food Brands

Mamavation looked at all 168 brands to decipher based on ranges which brands had the least amount of contaminants. We’ve created this range with help from Charlotte Brody, RN, National Director of Healthy Babies Bright Future & co-author of this report to categorize which brands deserve to be in which category. It’s important to strive for 0 ppb of lead because that is where children are safe. However, we recognize that we are not there yet and this represents the range of heavy metals. Here are the levels:

Lead: dangerous levels 17-27 ppb, concerning levels 7-17 ppb, and safer levels 0-7 ppb
Inorganic Arsenic: dangerous levels 75-100 ppb, concerning levels 40-75 ppb, and safer levels 0-40 ppb.
Cadmium: dangerous levels 25-50ppb, concerning levels 10-25 ppb, and safer levels 0-10 ppb
Mercury: dangerous levels 3-4 ppb, concerning levels 1-3 ppb, and safer levels 0-1 ppb.
Perchlorate: dangerous above 1 ppb to any child. This is the public health goal for perchlorate in water in California.

Not Our Favorite Baby Food Brands

These brands had the highest levels of heavy metals than the rest of the group. Specifically, baby & toddler food brands that had between 17-27 ppb of lead, between 75-1000 ppb or inorganic arsenic, 25-50 ppb of cadmium, 3-4 ppb of mercury, or any perchlorate landed here. Because perchlorate is so incredibly toxic to the baby’s development, we have those brands highlighted. (This investigation also reflects the most recent heavy metal testing sent to the U.S. House of Representatives by Beach-Nut, Gerber, Plum Organics, Parent’s Choice (Walmart), Sprouts Organic Foods, Happy Baby Organics, & Earth’s Best Organic in 2021.) This is not organized according to types of baby foods.

Baby Mum-Mum Banana Rice Rusks (arsenic, mercury, perchlorate)
Beech-Nut Rice Single Grain Baby Cereal (high arsenic, low lead, low cadmium)
Beach-Nut Rice Cereal from beech-nut nutrition company (arsenic)
Beech-Nut Oatmeal Whole Grain Baby Cereal (lead, cadmium, perchlorate)
Beech-Nut Organics Just Carrots (perchlorate)
Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Carrots (high lead, cadmium, mercury)
Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Potatoes Stage 2 (high lead, cadmium)
Beech-Nut Classics Mixed Vegetables Stage 2 (high lead)
BioKinetics Brown Rice Organic Sprouted Whole Grain Baby Cereal (high arsenic, lead, high cadmium, mercury)
Comforts (Kroger) Blueberry Little Puffs Cereal Snack (arsenic, lead, high cadmium)
Cream of Wheat Instant Original Flavor (high lead, high cadmium)
Cuetara Animalitos Galleta Crackers (Animal Crackers) (high cadmium)
Deluxe Pasta Macaroni & Cheese, Original Flavor (lead, high cadmium)
Earth’s Best Organic Sensitivity DHR/ARA Infant Formula with Iron (perchlorate)
Earths Best Organic Whole Grain Rice Cereal from Hain Celestial group (high arsenic, high lead, cadmium, mercury)
Earth’s Best Organic Sesame Street Peanut Butter Baked Corn Puffs (high cadmium)
Earth’s Best Organic Spinach and Potato Baby Food 6 months (perchlorate)
Gerber Multigrain Cereal (arsenic, lead, high cadmium, mercury, perchlorate)
Gerber Rice Single Grain Cereal (arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, perchlorate)
Gerber Rice Cereal (arsenic)
Gerber Probiotic Rice Banana Apple Cereal (arsenic)
Gerber Oatmeal Single Grain Cereal (Lead, cadmium, perchlorate)
Gerber Whole Wheat Whole Grain Cereal (Lead, arsenic, cadmium, perchlorate)
Gerber Barley Single Grain Cereal (Lead, cadmium, perchlorate)
Gerber Diced Carrots Veggie Pickups (lead, high cadmium, mercury)
Gerber Carrot Sitter 2nd Food (lead, high cadmium, mercury)
Gerber Carrot Supported Sitter 1st Goods (lead, high cadmium, mercury)
Gerber Sweet Potato Supported Sitter 1st Foods Tub (high lead, cadmium)
Gerber Sweet Potato Sitter 2nd Foods (high lead, cadmium)
Gerber Fruit & Veggie Melts Truly Tropical Blend Free Dried Fruit & Vegetable Snack (lead, high cadmium)
Gerber Arrowroot Biscuits (lead, high cadmium)
HappyBABY Organic Oats & Quinoa Baby Cereal Whole Grains with Iron (perchlorate)
HappyBABY Organic Baby Cereal, Clearly Crafted Whole Grains (perchlorate)
HappyBABY Organic Simple Combos Apples, Spinach & Kale (perchlorate)
HappyBABY Superfoods Puffs- Apple & Broccoli Organic Grain Snack (high arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury)
HappyBABY Superfood Puffs – Sweet Potato & Carrot Organic Grain Snack from Happy Family Organics (high arsenic, cadmium, mercury)
HappyBABY Organic Rice Cakes Puffed Rice Snack – Apple (arsenic, high mercury)
Healthy Times Organic Brown Rice Cereal (high lead, high arsenic, cadmium, mercury, perchlorate)
Kitchdee Organic Baby Cereal Rice and Lentil (lead, high arsenic, cadmium, high mercury)
Kraft Mac & Cheese Dinner, Original Flavor (cadmium)
Nosh! Baby Munchabes Organic Teething Wafers- Banana & Mango (arsenic, high mercury)
NurturMe Organic Quinoa Cereals–Quinoa & sweet potato & raisin (arsenic, high lead, cadmium, perchlorate)
Nurture’s Apple Spinach Pea & Kiwi (lead)
Nuture’s Pea Spinach Teether (lead)
Nuture’s Apple Rice Cakes (lead)
Nurture’s Blueberry Purple Carrot Greek Yogis (lead)
Nurture’s Apple & Broccoli Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Banana & Pumpkin Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Strawberry & Beet Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Kale & Spinach Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Purple Carrot & Blueberry Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Sweet Potato & Carrot Puffs (arsenic)
Nurture’s Apple Rice Cakes (arsenic)
Nurture’s Blueberry Beet Rice Cakes (arsenic)
Nurture’s Multi-grain Cereal canister (lead)
O Organics (Albertsons/Safeway) Organic Puffs- Apple & Strawberry (high arsenic, lead, cadmium, high mercury)
Parents Choice (Walmart) Organic Strawberry Rice Rusks (arsenic, high lead, mercury)
Parents Choice (Walmart) Little Hearts Strawberry Yogurt Cereal Snacks Stage 3 (high cadmium)
Parents Choice (Walmart) Carrot Stage 2 (perchlorate)
Plum Organics Grow Well Muscle (lead)
Plum Organics Grow Well Tummy (lead)
Plum Organics Little Teethers Blueberry (lead)
Plum Organics Mighty Morning Bar Blueberry Lemon 15 months (cadmium, perchlorate)
Plum Organics Mighty Snack Bars Strawberry (lead)
Plum Organics Super Puffs Apple with Spinach (arsenic)
Plum Organics Super Puffs Mango with Sweet Potato (arsenic)
Plum Organics Super Puffs Blueberry with Purple Sweet Potato (arsenic)
Plum Organics Super Puffs Strawberry with Beet (arsenic)
Plum Organic Teensy Snacks Berry (lead)
Similac Advance OptiGRO Powder (perchlorate)
Simple Truth Organics (Kroger) Whole Grain Puffs Broccoli & Spinach (high arsenic, lead, cadmium, high mercury)
SOBISK Breakfast Biscuits Golden Oat (high lead)
Sprout Organic Quinoa Puffs Baby Cereal Snack – Apple Kale (arsenic, high lead, high cadmium, mercury)

Better Baby Food Brands

This category represents two separate groups. Group #1 is between 7-17 ppb lead, 40-75 ppb inorganic arsenic, 10-25 ppb cadmium, and/or 1-3 ppb of mercury. Group #2 is brands that contains the lowest levels of contaminants, but are not organic so they likely contain various pesticide residue. This category has between 0-7 ppb lead, 0-40 ppb inorganic arsenic, 0-10 ppb cadmium, and/or less than 1 ppb of mercury and are marked with **.

365 Organic Whole Foods Milk Based Powder Infant Formula with Iron**
Applesnax Applesauce with Cinnamon**
Beech-Nut Naturals Just Sweet Potatoes Stage 1 (lead, cadmium)
Beech-Nut Classics Sweet Peas Stage 2**
Beech-Nut Naturals Just Butternut Squash Stage 1**
Beech-Nut Naturals Bananas Stage 1 4 months**
Beech-Nut Naturals Beets, Pear & Pomegranate**
Beech-Nut Classics Chicken & Chicken Broth**
Beech-Nut Classics Turkey & Turkey Broth**
Beech-Nut Breakfast-on-the-go Yogurt Banana & Mixed Berry Blend Stage 4**
Earth’s Best Organic Oatmeal Cereal (Arsenic, Lead, cadmium)
Earth’s Best Organic Sweet Potatoes Baby Food 4 months+ (lead, cadmium)
Earth’s Best Organic Sweet Potatoes Baby Food 6 months+ (lead, cadmium)
Earth’s Best Organic Chicken & Brown Rice Baby Food 6 months (arsenic, lead)
Earth’s Best Sunny Days Snack Bars – Swee Potato Carrot (cadmium)
Enfamil ProSobee Soy Infant Formula, Milk-Free Lactose-Free Powder (lead, cadmium)
Enfamil Infant Formula Milk-Based with Iron**
Gerber Good Start Gentle HM-O and Probiotics Infant Formula with Iron**
Gerber Pea Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Green Beans Sitter 2nd Food**
Gerber Green Bean Supported Sitter 1st Foods**
Gerber Banana Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Peach Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Pear Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Sweet Potato Supported Sitter 1st Foods (lead, cadmium)
Gerber Organic Mango Apple Carrot Kale Sitter 2nd Foods (cadmium)
Gerber Carrot Pear Blackberry Sitter 2nd Foods (cadmium)
Gerber Mashed Potatoes & Gravy with Roasted Chicken and a Side of Carrots (cadmium)
Gerber Puffs Banana Cereal Snack (lead, cadmium)
Gerber Apple Sweet Potato with Cinnamon Toddler**
Gerber Carrot Sweet Potato Pea Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Apple Juice from Concentrate**
Gerber Apple Prune Juice from Concentrate**
Gerber Variety Pack Juices from Concentrate–White Grape**
Gerber Pear Juice from Concentrate 100% Juice**
Gerber Chicken Rice Dinner Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Turkey Rice Dinner Sitter 2nd Foods**
Gerber Lil’ Sticks Chicken Sticks Toddler**
Gerber Beef and Gravy 2nd Foods**
Gerber Ham and Gravy 2nd Foods**
Gerber Teether Wheels Apple Harvest**
HappyBABY Organic Infant Formula with Iron, Milk-based**
HappyBABY Organic Teethers Blueberry & Purple Carrot Sitting Baby (mercury)
Happy Tot Love My Veggies Bowl, Cheese & Spinach Ravioli with Organic Marinara Sauce (lead, cadmium)
Harvest Hill Instant Oatmeal, Maple & Brown Sugar (lead, cadmium)
Juicy Juice 100% Juice –Apple**
Juicy Juice 100% Juice Fruit Punch**
Kidgets Toddler Apple Juice from Concentrate**
Little Duck Organics 100% Pressed Fruit Snacks & Probiotics Pomegranate, Blueberry & Acai (lead)
Little Dutch Maid Saltine Crackers (cadmium)
Meijer Apple Rice Rusks Baked Rice Snack (mercury)
Meijer Baby Sweet Potatoes 2nd Stage**
Meijer Baby Bananas 2nd Stage**
Meijer True Goodness Organic Teethers Baked Rice Snack Vegetable (mercury)
Mott’s Applesauce Apple**
Nostalgia Marias Cookies Galletas (cadmium)
Orchard Naturals Mandarin Oranges in Light Syrup**
Parents Choice (Walmart) Organic Infant Formula with Iron**
Parents Choice (Walmart) Sweet Potato Stage 1**
Pediasure Grow & Gain Chocolate Shake**
Plum Organics Genter Organic Infant Formula with Iron**
Plum Organics Organic Just Sweet Potato Baby Food
Repone Suero/Electrolyte Solution with Zinc Fruit Flavor**
Seneca Cinnamon Applesauce**
Simple Truth Organics (Kroger) Infant Formula with Iron, DHA and Dual Prebiotics**
Sprout Garden Vegetables Brown Rice with Turkey for 8 months+**
Sprout Carrot Apple Mango Organic Baby Food (cadmium)
Up & Up (Target) Infant Formula with Iron**
Up & Up (Target) Apple and Carrot Baby Food, Fruit & Vegetable Blend, 6 months**
Yoo-hoo Chocolate Drink**

Best Baby Food Brands

This category is organic and has between 0-7 ppb lead, 0-40 ppb inorganic arsenic, 0-10 ppb cadmium, less than 1 ppb of mercury. We’ve linked up as many brands as we could find on Amazon for your convenience.

365 Organic Whole Foods 100% Juice Apple from Concentrate
Apple & Eve Elmo’s Punch 100% Organic Juice
Baby’s Only Organic Non-GMO Dairy Toddler Formula
Beech-Nut Organics Just Sweet Potatoes Stage 1
Beech-Nut Organic Just Pumpkin Stage 1
Beech-Nut Organic Just Apples Stage 1 4 months
Earth’s Best Organic Carrots Baby Food
Earth’s Best Organic Winter Squash Baby Food
Earth’s Best Organic First Peas Baby Food
Earth’s Best Organic Apples Baby Food 6 months+
Earth’s Best Organic First Pears 4 months
Earth’s Best Organic Turkey Quinoa Apple Sweet potato Homestyle Meal Puree
Earth’s Best Organic Chicken Pot Pie Homestyle Meat Puree
Earth’s Best Organic Sweet Potato Cinnamon Flax & Oat-Wholesome Breakfast Puree 6 months+
Earth’s Best Sesame Street Organic Fruit Yogurt Smoothie Apple Blueberry
Ella’s Kitchen Organic Nibbly Fingers Apples & Strawberries
Gerber Organic Apple Blueberry Spinach Sitter 2nd Food
Good2Grow Fortified Water – Orange Mango
HappyBABY Organic Sweet Potatoes Stage 1
HappyBABY Organic Pears Stage 1
HappyBABY Organic Clearly Crafted Prunes 4 months
HappyBABY Organic Apples, Sweet Potato & Granola Clearly Crafted Baby Food
Meijer Infant Formula Milk-Based with Iron
Meijer True Goodness Organic Carrots Baby Food
Meijer True Goodness Organic Sweet Potatoes Baby Food Stage 2
O Organics (Albertsons/Safeway) Organic Carrots Baby Food
O Organics (Albertsons/Safeway) Organic Apple, Sweet Potato & Carrot Baby Food
O Organics (Albertsons/Safeway) Strained Organic Turkey and Turkey Gravy Baby Food
Orgain Kids Protein Organic Nutritional Shake Vanilla Flavor
Parents Choice (Walmart) Organic Butternut Squash Vegetable Puree Stage 2
Parents Choice (Walmart) Organic Strawberry Carrot & Quinoa Fruit & Veg Puree
Plum Organics Organic Just Peaches Baby Food
Plum Organics Organic Just Prunes Baby Food
Plum Organics Pumpkin Banana Papaya Cardomon 6 months
Plum Organics Apple, Raisin & Quinoa Baby Food
Plum Organics Little Teethers Organic Multigrain Teething Wafers Banana with Pumpkin
Simple Truth Organics (Kroger) Mini Rice Cakes Apple
Sprouts Organic Baby Food Prunes Starting Solids
Sprout Butternut Chickpea Quinoa & Dates Organic Baby Food
Sprout Organic Crispy Chews Red Fruit Beet & Berry with Crispy Brown Rice

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